Popular French Cinema of the 1930’s: Poetic Realism

Popular French Cinema of the 1930's: Poetic Realism

This Case Study seeks to explore the Popular Cinema of France in the 1930s with a focus on Poetic Realism, and to establish the extent to which France sought to reinforce a sense of national identity through a desire for a popular cinema. This will also include an examination of how the aesthetics of Poetic Realism arose from the socio-political circumstances of France in the 1930s. I will further explore how this ultimately revealed a conflicted society, divided along the lines of class and gender and which had a deep sense of foreboding and anxiety. 

French Cinema of the 1930s was a product of unrest, in both the film industry and of a wider global, political, and social turmoil. The era was defined by mass unemployment, the rise of Fascism throughout Europe and the possibility of a Second World War. In France, the 1930s were dominated by the rise of a Socialist workers’ movement known as the Popular Front and the aftermath of the First World War. From this arose a new movement of artists, which constituted a unique group of writers, directors and set-designers, who expressed a desire to portray the realities of working class life in France. Utilising a realist aesthetic, they would combine this with a heightened mise-en-scène and use of symbolism, creating poetry out of the mundane whilst signifying a sense of French identity. By the end of the 1930s there was a sense of disillusionment with the Popular Front and a pervasive sense of defeatism. This is reflected in the proletarian- centred, foreboding narratives and dark and melancholic mise-en-scène that defined the iconography of Poetic Realism.

There are limitations to consider when studying Poetic Realism. There is also the question of whether Poetic Realism was truly a popular genre, or whether it appealed to the more elite, sophisticated audiences, who enjoyed art-cinema. Furthermore, when analysing the films of the canon, it can be argued that one tends to look at them through the prism of modern understanding and merely as a result of the politics of the Popular Front, ignoring the artistic merit that should be afforded to them. 

Firstly in this study, it would be appropriate to consider the issues of productivity and popular genres of the French film industry prior to Poetic Realism. 

Prior to the First World War, France was dominant in the world of the modern film. Whilst France was engaged in war, the USA seized upon the opportunities to be gained by the utilization of sound and the ‘talkie’ and created the Hollywood spectacle. According to Ginette Vincendeau (1996, p. 344), production had dropped to fifty-five films in 1926 and  “for every French film shown, there were two to three US ones throughout the 1930s.” Furthermore, 95% of French cinemas were independently owned and consequently, the USA was able to monopolise the distribution market.  Members of the French industry were worried about the competition from the USA and consequently asked the French government for help in better organising the industry.  Indeed, Gaumont-Franco Film-Aubert and Pathé- Natan, formed in the late 1920s, had both collapsed by 1934. Between the dominance of the market by the USA and the poor finances of their industry, French film companies faced a difficult period (Vincendeau 1996).

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One could argue that there was a crisis of identity in French cinema. According to Dudley Andrew (1995, p. 2), France planned to counter-attack the competition from the USA with a uniquely French notion of a “cinema of quality.” Hollywood was pictured as more of an assembly line, whereas films in France were created as individual achievements, developed using the specialist skills of individuals and rooted in the artistic history of France as a purveyor of style and quality (Andrew 1995, p. 4). In studios such as Épinay and Boulogne-Billancourt in Paris and those in Nice and Marseille, film-makers were establishing their artistic expertise.  In contrast to the large studio systems of the USA, the French film industry would be independently produced, based around a team of people, to establish a sense of community. This group of people consisted of skilled technicians from across Europe, in what Andrew (1995, p. 4) calls a “community of emigres”. It is interesting to note that Hungarian set designer Alexandre Trauner and German cameraman Jules Krüger, as outsiders to the culture, were creating the iconography of French cinema.

The turning point in the fortune of French cinema came with the success of René Clairs Sous les toits de Paris (Under the Rooftops of Paris) in 1930. This was a pre-cursor of Poetic Realism in its depiction of working class life, with both Marcel Carné and Alexandre Trauner involved in its production. As Vincendeau (1996, p. 335) writes, “The early 1930s saw a rapid increase in the number of features produced, shooting up to 157 in 1931, 130 films a year.”

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It is useful to explore other popular genres of French cinema in the 1930s. Along with Poetic Realist films, the filmed theatre, musical hall and historical melodrama were particularly adored by the French people. Filmed theatre helped enhance the status of French cinema as its “strong sense of French language established its uniqueness to American cinema (Andrew 1995, p. 6).”  Vincendeau (1996, p. 345) concurs that satirical boulevard comedies also helped French cinema in the face of the threat from the USA.  French audiences could enjoy these films at their local 'flea-pit' or the Rex cinema in Paris in what was called ‘cinema du sam’ di soir’. 

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The filmed musicals included Le Chemin du paradis (the Road to Paradise) 1930 and the biggest female star of this genre, Annabella, starred in such films as Quatorza Juilllet (Bastille Day) in 1933. Military vaudeville or Comique Troupier became a popular sub-genre, with stars like Fernandel and adaptations such as Les Misérables in 1933 were part of the popular genre of Historical Melodrama.  Vincendeau (1985, p. 98) asserts that such genres were popular because they were part of “a cinema of nostalgia” in which the audience was lulled into a false sense of security through depictions of simpler times and a supposed lost sense of community. 

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Secondly in this study, it would be pertinent to explore the political and social climate that would lead to the creation of Poetic Realism. 

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The coming of the Popular Front reflected the winds of political change that characterised the 1930’s.  During the 1930s, there was a realignment of the left, in which Communists were encouraged to ally with Socialists in building a working class movement as a response to the rise of Fascism (Andrew 1995). The fascist riots of 1934 provoked the political crisis in France that would lead to the creation of the Popular Front. The Popular Front espoused a message of unity and equality for workers in the fight against Fascism. It attracted not only the working class, but those of the lower middle class who were committed to left-wing ideals. 

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Since the 19th century, writers and artists, in the tradition of realism, have been drawn to depicting those on the fringes of society; from prostitutes to members of the criminal underworld. This is evident in the novels of Zola, Maupassant and Hugo. In the 1930s artists, photographers and film-makers were similarly drawn to this world. Photographers like Brassaï depicted a Paris of shadow and rain soaked pavements in his Paris de Nuit series.  The film-makers of Paris, influenced by the new workers movement, endeavoured to portray the lives of the working class. Marcel Carné wrote that he wanted to “describe the simple life of the people, to render the atmosphere of its labouring humanity (Carné 1975, p. 117).” 

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On the one hand, ‘Frontism’ offered a real attempt at political commitment.  Susan Hayward (2000, p. 105) argues that “in considering nations and representation we cannot help but observe that ideology is used to construct the nation-state.” However, the question of the political commitment of the creators of Poetic Realism is debatable. Andrew (1995, p. 3) believes the canon to be “short-sighted and morally anaemic” and finds that the directors were not working class. In the films of this genre, the problems facing the characters could be viewed as irrelevant to the real concerns of the ordinary man. Poetic Realist films do evade political issues and the fascist threat, but one should not view these films merely as political vehicles. It is argued by Andrew (1995, p. 98) that there seemed to be a fascination with the ‘spectacle’ of the lower classes, a “preoccupation with looking at” this aspect of society. This element of condescension is apparent in Leon Lemonniers’ Manifeste du roman populiste in which he writes “we believe that the peuple offers a very rich novelistic subject-matter, one which is almost entirely unexplored (Andrew 1995 cites Lemonnier 1929, p. 23).”

There was a great appreciation for French film throughout Europe and the USA. Andrew (1995, p. 13) asserts that "French films of the late 1930s became the first substantial body of foreign-language pictures to interest American audiences.” A cult of appreciation for Poetic Realist films became apparent in American cities. French films were “thought to have something to do with culture, something to do with sophistication” (Andrew 1995, p.13), in line with the history of quality and style in the French Arts.  However, Rotha (1949, p. 530) asserts that because Poetic Realism appeals to an international, literate audience, “the canon is suspect.”

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In addition, Sandy Flitterman-Lewis (1990, p. 173) defines the genre as “a paradoxical blend of minutely detailed realism with symbolic, suggestive effects.” The genre is defined by a recreated realism of the lives of the working class and the poetic is achieved through a heightened mise-en-scene to accentuate the symbolism and themes of the narrative. 

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Poetic Realism sought to create poetry from the mundane, and to "encourage viewers to measure the reach and aspiration of their own ordinary lives (Andrew 1995, p. 3).” The Poetic Realist canon was recognisable for its attention to detail and matched with the dialogue and action, promised a greater sense of authenticity.

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The narratives of the Poetic Realist genre are centered on the plight of the working man and his struggles in life. This usually includes a tragic love affair, in which the resolution is the hero’s self-destruction. A pervasive sense of defeatism and foreboding emphasises the plight of the working class and their disillusionment and sense of hopelessness. The film set- design reconstructs reality, with symbolic décor that signifies the psychology of the character. The cinematography is defined by dark, contrasting lighting. 

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The distinguished film critic, André Bazin, believed that Poetic Realism as a genre was a result of the ratio of poetry to realism. He wanted a French cinema that was akin to the prestige of literature, yet could still appeal to a broad audience and therefore be of social significance. Bazin was "enticed by a kind of film that encourages far-reaching aesthetic speculation while remaining a cinema of broad consumption and hence of great social significance (Andrew 1995, p. 2).” In contrast to so called ‘art films', in elevating the ordinary, poetic realism would be ‘true to life’ and reveal something deeper, almost metaphysical.  

It can be argued that cinema is a result and reflection of the social and cultural forces of its era. Andrew (1995, p. 3) argues that “film aesthetics can be examined only on the basis of concrete cultural manifestations.” Poetic Realism reflected a sense of nostalgia for the pre-war years, a prevalent disillusionment with the Popular Front and the prospect of an oncoming war.  It could therefore be argued that the historical background of Poetic Realism renders this as a movement. Indeed, Andrew (1995, p. 7) asserts that “this ‘identity’ is made up of the mass of aesthetic, technological, social, and psychological facets that must characterise any but imaginary cinematic categories.” 

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Andrew references an article of 1929 in which came a plea for “a French Style of Cinema” and a “unity of expression” (Andrew 1995, p. 7).  By the end of the decade film culture was thriving. The Cinémathèque Française was founded in 1936 by Henri Langlois, Georges Franju and Jean Mitry. Popular magazines like Pour Vous and Cinémonde were read, and film histories such as those by Georges Sadoul were being written. Seemingly, France had reinforced the importance of the national cinema and recovered their cinematic prestige. 

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In terms of status and economic power, Jean Gabin, a former music hall performer, was the star actor in French cinema of the 1930s. He represented the ultimate proletarian hero, “a screen symbol the world over of the tough but tender Frenchman (Vincendeau citing Powell 1976. 2011, p. 97).” 

Gabin was portrayed as the embodiment of the proletarian hero. Vincendeau (2011, p. 97) argues that Gabins approximation with the proletarian hero was determined by the dominant populism of the period and the importance of performance.  His performances displayed the dichotomies and struggles of the so called French working man, personified in his conveying of both toughness and vulnerability. His contained masculinity would give leave to explosive outbursts of anger, as well as tender moments of nostalgia and pathos. In the films of directors’ Julien Duvivier and Marcel Carné, the use of chiaroscuro lighting and close-ups on Gabins face conveys the dualistic nature of his personality. 

Vincendeau (2011, p. 108), argues that “in their display of virile behaviour, the Gabin heroes…embody the very contradictions of the working class” and “the tragic ending of these films is…in the end, the tragedy of working class masculinity.” Gabins storylines usually involved his character being outdone by the cowardly and powerful and a tragic love whereby the only narrative solution is for his destruction. According to Andrew (1995, p. 35), Gabin represents the agony felt at the demise of the Popular Front, signified in his wearing “a metaphysical cap of desperation and defeat.” His performances convey the pervasive sense of fatigue, disorientation and hopelessness felt throughout France. 

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The issue of transnationalism is pertinent to the study of Gabin. The film Pépé le Moko was remade in Hollywood and renamed Algiers. The film was not as commercially successful because its star, Charles Boyer was not considered to embody the masculinity that Jean Gabin possessed. 

Alexandre Trauner established himself as a set designer in the 1930s, collaborating with Marcel Carné on films such as Le Quai des brumes and Le Jour se Lève. The ‘Trauner style’, according to McCann (2005, p. 65) “revolves around three recurring aspects: visual symbolism, the interplay between monumental and intimate, and the decor paraphrasing the narrative.” Trauner (1982, p. 34) reinforced the importance of a set designer in establishing the mise en scène “so that the spectator has an immediate grasp of the character’s psychology.” Trauners sets are not merely denotive, they signify key points of theme, narrative and character psychology.

Trauner would carry out extensive research during pre-production, scouring archives and visiting galleries and museums. He then exercised a process of reduction, distilling a visual concept to symbolic objects which would resonate throughout the entire narrative. “Trauners skill was to appropriate realism and then simplify, stylise or accentuate it into an expressive décor (McCann 2009, p. 69).” His designs would relate to the atmospheric settings which assisted in creating levels of embedded meaning. A further method was the use of horizon shots looking down onto a street. Another method was the Trompe- l'oeil wherein the last 30 metres of a set would be painted in forced perspective, to give the illusion of breadth and depth. Crisp (1997, p. 367) argues that the tension between having the décor go un-noticed, yet still conveying the mood of the film is what created the poetic realist style. 

Finally, I will analyse a film that epitomises the Poetic Realist genre, Le Jour se Lève (Daybreak). André Bazin favoured Le Jour se Leve because it “exemplified the balance between the everyday and an accentuated concern for subjective mood” (Andrew 1995, p. 8).  Le Jour se Lève was directed by Marcel Carné in 1938 as part of his trilogy along with Le Quai des brumes and Hôtel du Nord.  It was written by Jacques Prévert, adapted from a story by Jacques Viot. 

The film follows the character of François (Jean Gabin) who is trapped in his hotel room after he shoots dead Valentin (Jules Berry) the dog trainer, following an angry confrontation over Françoise, the woman they both love. The film follows François' contemplation of this inescapable situation. The narrative is shown through a series of flashbacks, which are accompanied by two musical themes, composed by Maurice Jaubert. After each fade, there is either a mournful or upbeat musical score which corresponds to Gabins state of mind.  Realising that he has no means of escape, François commits suicide by shooting himself in the heart.

The iconography of Poetic Realism is evident in this film; from the contrast in lighting, the familiar roof-tops, spiralling staircases and the set-design of Alexandre Trauner. Bazin viewed Trauner’s sets as metaphysical. He wrote that in Le Jour se Lève “we see how the décor cooperates as much as the actors performance to justify the situation, explain the character and credibility of the action (Bazin 1970, p. 8-9).” The main points of reference in the décor are; an alarm clock, a teddy bear, and a mirror. The mirror is used as a means of self-reflection and later destruction, which signifies François’ inner turmoil. The alarm clock is placed in the foreground to convey a sense of time running out; for Francois and perhaps France as a nation also. It is poignant that just after Francois commits suicide, his alarm rings at daybreak. The teddy bear serves to highlight the tension between the tough and the vulnerable tendencies in Francois, as mentioned above. Francoise also owns a teddy bear. She says to Francois ‘You and he are alike, he has one twinkly eye and one a little sad’ further reinforcing the role of the teddy-bear as a signifier of character psychology.

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The sense of hopelessness and suicide of François in Le Jour se Lève serves as an allegory for the sense of disillusionment and defeatism at the demise of the Popular Front and the coming of an inevitable war.

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In conclusion, 

Responding to the threat of a dominating American cinema, France created its own ‘cinema of quality’ that would help them regain their cinematic prestige and create a new form of popular cinema. The accompanying social and political upheaval of the 1930s encouraged a realist aesthetic for artists, directors and writers to explore more deeply, the lives of the working classes. The new cinema of Poetic Realism was the vehicle by which to do this. Though not overtly political, the films of Poetic Realism did reflect the economic depression of the period, a sense of defeatism and a very real anxiety about the rise of Fascism and the inevitability of a Second World War. The Poetic Realist canon reflected the possibilities that were lost with the demise of the Popular Front.  Though mainly seen by a sophisticated audience who appreciated ‘art cinema’ this does not alter the fact that Poetic Realism did constitute a popular cinema and captured an image of the French nation at a turbulent and unique moment in history.